Iron, Cobalt, Magnesium, Titanium, and Silicon:
These ores are the very first items you need. They can be found on the ground, in all regions. All of them can be collected using a T1 Drill.

Iridium:
Iridium ore can be found in multiple places. First one is the Iridium Mine which is located near the giant spaceship in the Dune Desert, on a cliff face. Second way is using a Magnetic Field Protection rocket that will cause Iridium asteroids to rain down. Third, if you chose the meteor crater as a starting point then you will be right near a giant Iridium asteroid in the middle of the crater.

Aluminium:
Aluminum can be found in many ways, but the easiest is in the Aluminium Fields. It's near the standard spawn point. It can also be found in various caves.

Sulfur:
Sulfur can be found in the sulfur fields, near the Sand Falls. It can also be found in Osmium caves.

Osmium:
Osmium is found in multiple caves, one being to the right of the spaceship across from the standard starting point on a hill.

Zeolite:
After reaching Flora, Roots will start to appear that have dug up Zeolite. The locations for these Roots are:
-163:30:-851 -81:30:-592 12:30:-401 232:40:-764 254:14:-278 264:22:-318 267:15:-366 372:8:-173 543:61:1638 605:28:-122 740:50:1130 744:39:604 812:43:1074 819:61:1460 874:37:821 890:28:753 929:26:524 947:19:1056 993:21:714 1047:17:84 1107:69:1969 1152:14:2379 1226:25:60 1310:6:542 1341:15:190 1350:14:1857 1372:10:2172 1440:36:769 1474:59:377 1493:10:2130 1493:108:2498 1509:10:2027 1561:109:2463 1572:25:520 1574:10:2232 1702:12:2025 1706:22:-341 1784:75:166 1841:75:63 1863:2:208 188:23:-342 1927:2:50 1980:76:268 2092:2:340 2120:75:413.
Zeolite can also be mined with a T2 Drill, past the Osmium cave near the standard starting point on the hill.

Ice:
Ice can be found on the ground in almost every region, however it cannot be mined using a Drill.

Uranium:
Uranium is found in the Uranium mine, and can be obtained from the Asteroid Attraction rocket, doing the same method as the Iridium rocket.

Super Alloy:
Super Alloy can be crafted in a Advanced Crafting Table, There are also 3 other locations: #1: In the Dust in Sand falls (there is also a Osmium cave there). #2: In the Labyrinth which can be found right next to the aluminium fields, in a crack in a wall. Also another way to the Labyrinth is through the edges of the map. #3: In the Super alloy mine, right of the Iridium mine.

And finally,

Pulsar Quartz:
Pulsar Quartz can be found in 2 places. #1: Osmium caves. #2: Asteroid Fields found on the edges of Wastes.

Tips: If you're exploring, remember to bring 3 Iron, 2 Titanium, and 1 Silicon. This will allow you to quickly make a door and compartment to fill your oxygen tank. The Osmium caves are blocked by Ice, so you have to heat up the planet enough so you can get through.